Three-dimensional biofabrication of an aragonite-enriched self-hardening bone graft substitute and assessment of its osteogenicity in vitro and in vivo
Yunsong Shi1,2, Ruijun He1, Xiangyu Deng1, Zengwu Shao1, Davide Deganello3, Chunze Yan4,*(), Zhidao Xia2,*()

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Figure 11.. (A) Light microscopy (1 mm section stained with Toluidine blue) revealed that implantation of a gelatine sponge resulted in formation of fibrous tissue between the tibia and the tibialis anterior muscle. (B) At 6 weeks after HA/aragonite implantation, the materials were covered by fibroblasts and macrophages; interestingly, there was a small patch of bone-like tissue formation. Transmission electron microscopy (100 nm section with uranyl acetate and lead citrate staining) observation confirmed the findings of light microscopy. In the control gelatine sponge implantation group (C), macrophagic responses were observed with fibroblast infiltration for tissue regeneration; whereas with implantation of the HA/aragonite (D), typical osteoblast-like cells with canaliculi-like structures within calcified lacunae were observed in the patch of bone-like tissue. Scale bars: 20 μm in A, B, 2 μm in C, D. HA: hydroxyapatite.