| Small animal model |
| Mouse | Low cost of maintenance, ease of gene-editing and surgical manipulation, multiple types of antibodies | Not-suitable for in situ studies for small size and mismatched anatomy and physiology |
| Rat | Low cost of maintenance, ease of surgical approach, access for implantation into the systemic circulation | Not-suitable for in situ studies |
| Rabbit | Low cost of upkeep, larger size for larger graft implantation | Especially suitable for ectopic studies (subcutaneous implantation) |
| Large animal model |
| Sheep | The golden standard for translational studies, the similarity of body size to human, easy access for transcatheter replacement of tissue-engineered heart valves, suitable growing speed for growing model | Higher cost of purchase and upkeep, special facilities required for housing |
| Pig | Resemblance to humans in terms of cardiovascular anatomy and physiology, access to transgenic models | Higher cost of purchase and upkeep, special facilities required for housing, higher risk of post-operation infection, the possibility of chronic arterial occlusion and cardiac death after CPB, unsuitable growing speed compared with sheep |
| Dog | Docile character, thin skin for implantation of catheters and convenient imaging, lower risk of
post-operative infection | Higher cost of purchase and upkeep, special facilities required for housing, difficulty in getting approval |
| Non-human primate | The best model for translational clinical research for anatomical, physiological, genetic, and immune similarity | The highest cost of purchase and upkeep, special facilities required for housing and social needs of primates, special equipment, and training required for surgical approach |
| Bioreactors |
| Pulse-flow bioreactors | The anatomy is more similar to the physiology | Generate complex and ill-defined mechanical conditioning, which cannot be readily controlled |
| Single mechanical stimulus bioreactor | The type and size of the mechanical stimulation can be finely adjusted | Only single stimulation can be made, a good cultural environment is needed and high cost |
| Multi-mechanical stimulus bioreactor | Know the synergistic effect of different combinations of mechanical stimuli on cells and tissues | May exist mutual interference that led to inconsistent results |
| Computer-regulated bioreactor | Predictable, easy to understand hydrodynamic parameters | Only mechanical simulations, not chemical and biological ones |