Fate and transport of enveloped viruses in indoor built spaces - through understanding vaccinia virus and surface interactions

doi:10.3877/cma.j.issn.2096-112X.2021.01.007

Biomaterials Translational ›› 2021, Vol. 2 ›› Issue (1): 50-60.doi: 10.3877/cma.j.issn.2096-112X.2021.01.007

• RESEARCH ARTICLE • Previous Articles Next Articles

Fate and transport of enveloped viruses in indoor built spaces - through understanding vaccinia virus and surface interactions

Dahae Seong, Monchupa Kingsak, Yuan Lin, Qian Wang, Shamia Hoque^*()

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Received:2021-01-17 Revised:2021-03-08 Accepted:2021-03-21 Online:2021-03-31 Published:2021-03-28
Contact: Shamia Hoque E-mail:hoques@cec.sc.edu

Abstract

Abstract:

The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has reinforced the necessity of understanding and establishing baseline information on the fate and transport mechanisms of viruses under indoor environmental conditions. Mechanisms governing virus interactions in built spaces have thus far been established based on our knowledge on the interaction of inorganic particles in indoor spaces and do not include characteristics specific to viruses. Studies have explored the biological and kinetic processes of microbes’ attachments on surfaces in other fields but not in the built environment. There is also extensive literature on the influence of indoor architecture on air flow, temperature profiles, and forces influencing aerosol transport. Bridging the gap between these fields will lead to the generation of novel frameworks, methodologies and know-how that can identify undiscovered pathways taken by viruses and other microbes in the built environment. Our study summarizes the assessment of the influence of surface properties on the adhesion kinetics of vaccinia virus on gold, silica, glass, and stainless-steel surfaces. We found that on gold the virus layer was more viscoelastic compared to stainless-steel. There was negligible removal of the layer from the stainless-steel surface compared to the others. The results further highlight the importance of converging different fields of research to assess the fate and transport of microbes in indoor built spaces.

Key words: adhesion kinetics, aerosols, built environment, resuspension, surface properties, ventilation

Cite this article

Figures/Tables 6

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the fate and transport of virus particles at the intersection of bulk and boundary layer flow.

Figure 2. VACV structural and physical properties. (A) Schematic illustration of the VACV structure, genomic capacity, shape, average size, and surface charge. (B) Fluorescence imaging of green fluorescence protein-tagged VACV (green). (C) Zeta potentials of VACV over the pH 8 and pH 4.5 in 1 mM Tris buffer. Data are expressed as mean ± SD. (D) Atomic force microscopy image of VACV deposited on PDDA-glass substrate. The black arrows point to VACV particles. (E) Representative transmission electron microscopic images of VACV. The white arrows point to (1) outer membrane, (2) core membrane, and (3) surface tubules. Scale bars: 100 μm in B, 20 μm in enlarged part in B, 1 μm in D and 100 nm in E. PDDA: poly(diallyl dimethylammonium chloride); VACV: vaccinia virus. The duplicate samples were measured and two experiments were repeated to acquire the data.

Table 1 Frequency (?f) and dissipation (?D) shift due to VACV adhesion and mass (?m) of adhered VACV on the sensor surface calculated by Sauerbrey relation

Sensor	VACV adhesion		VACV detachment
Sensor	∆f (Hz)	∆D (×10^-6)	∆f (Hz)	∆D (×10^-6)
Gold	-5.77	1.90	-5.37	1.39
SiO₂	-31.70	1.85	-27.60	0.98
Glass	-29.81	2.52	-27.22	1.72
Stainless-steel	-22.16	2.40	-21.23	2.11

Figure 3. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation analysis of the frequency (?f, black line) and dissipation (?D, red line) (×10-6) shifts of VACV on gold (A), SiO2 (B), glass (C), and stainless-steel (D). Black arrow: VACV injection; blue arrow: rinsing with MilliQ. (E) Mass of adhered and remained virus layer on the sensor surfaces calculated by Sauerbrey relation. SS: stainless-steel; VACV: vaccinia virus. This is representative of an experiment started at 2.00 × 105 plaque-forming unit/mL.

Figure 4. Frequency-dissipation plots for VACV for gold (A), SiO2 (B), glass (C), and stainless-steel (D). ‘1’, ‘2’, and ‘3’ show the steps of the adhesion process, ‘1’ adhesion, ‘2’ reaching saturation and ‘3’ detachment due to the wash cycle. The numbers correspond to the slope represented by K1, K2 and K3. VACV: vaccinia virus. This is representative of an experiment started at 2.00 × 105 plaque-forming unit/mL.

Figure 5. A schematic representation of the current state and future research directions. f: function.

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Fate and transport of enveloped viruses in indoor built spaces - through understanding vaccinia virus and surface interactions

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