Advances in electrode interface materials and modification technologies for brain-computer interfaces

doi:10.12336/biomatertransl.2023.04.003

Biomaterials Translational ›› 2023, Vol. 4 ›› Issue (4): 213-233.doi: 10.12336/biomatertransl.2023.04.003

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Advances in electrode interface materials and modification technologies for brain-computer interfaces

Yunke Jiao¹, Miao Lei¹, Jianwei Zhu¹, Ronghang Chang¹, Xue Qu¹^,²^,³^,^*()

1 Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Material Science and Engineering, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
2 Wenzhou Institute of Shanghai University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
3 Shanghai Frontier Science Center of Optogenetic Techniques for Cell Metabolism, Shanghai, China

Received:2023-09-30 Revised:2023-11-13 Accepted:2023-11-24 Online:2023-12-27 Published:2023-12-28
Contact: Xue Qu, quxue@ecust.edu.cn.

Abstract

Abstract:

Recent advances in neuroelectrode interface materials and modification technologies are reviewed. Brain-computer interface is the new method of human-computer interaction, which not only can realise the exchange of information between the human brain and external devices, but also provides a brand-new means for the diagnosis and treatment of brain-related diseases. The neural electrode interface part of brain-computer interface is an important area for electrical, optical and chemical signal transmission between brain tissue system and external electronic devices, which determines the performance of brain-computer interface. In order to solve the problems of insufficient flexibility, insufficient signal recognition ability and insufficient biocompatibility of traditional rigid electrodes, researchers have carried out extensive studies on the neuroelectrode interface in terms of materials and modification techniques. This paper introduces the biological reactions that occur in neuroelectrodes after implantation into brain tissue and the decisive role of the electrode interface for electrode function. Following this, the latest research progress on neuroelectrode materials and interface materials is reviewed from the aspects of neuroelectrode materials and modification technologies, firstly taking materials as a clue, and then focusing on the preparation process of neuroelectrode coatings and the design scheme of functionalised structures.

Key words: biomaterials, brain-computer interface, conductive polymer, interface materials, microstructure, neuroelectrode

Cite this article

Figures/Tables 9

Figure 1. New metal material electrode. (A) Schematic of the formation process of ultrathin Au electrodes on polyelectrolyte coatings and photographic and microscopic images of Au/(PEI/PSS)5 MEA on plastic. (B) The magnitude of the impedance at 1 kHz (top) and a comparison of the area-normalised electrochemical impedance and light transmittance in a recently developed neuro-microelectrode (bottom). A and B were reprinted from Hong et al.67 Copyright 2022 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. Reproduced with permission. (C) TEM images of whiskered Au nanosheets showing the overall morphology and magnified views of the edge portion of the whiskers. Scale bars: 5 μm (C1, C2), 1 μm (C3), 200 nm (C4). Reprinted with permission from Lim et al.68 Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society. (D) The EIS curves of the LM-based and Pt electrodes under 1 × 10-1 up to 1 × 105 Hz at a scan rate of 0.1 V/s (in normal saline, 10 mV sine wave).71 (E) Fabrication of stretchable metal electrodes based on liquid metal-polymer conductors using screen printing, which reprinted from Dong et al.69 Copyright 2021 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. Reproduced with permission. Au: aurum; EGaIn: eutectic gallium-indium alloy; EIS: electrochemical impedance spectroscopy; LM: liquid metal; MEA: microelectrode array; NP: nanoparticle; PDMS: poly(dimethylsiloxane); PEI: polyethylenimine; PET: polyethylene terephthalate; PSS: poly(styrene sulfonate); Pt: platinum; TEM: transmission electron microscopy.

Figure 2. Semiconductor materials neuroelectrodes. (A) Photograph of a 1024-channel SiMNA and a magnified view of an array with a tapered SiMN with a height of approximately 300 μm and a tip coated with PtNM. Scale bar: 2 mm. (B) Magnified view of a 1024-channel SiMNA implanted in the right hemisphere of the rat brain. Scale bar: 200 μm (left), 1 mm (right). (C) Schematic diagram of SiMNA implantation in the right hemisphere with electrical connections pointing toward the back of the rat (green highlighted area indicates successful implantation of cortical SiMNs, while the SiMN in the red highlighted area is located at the top of the rat skull) and a signal-to-noise histogram of whisker blowing stimulation evoked LFP response. A-C were reprinted from Lee et al.75 Copyright 2022 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. Reproduced with permission. (D) Side and top views of patterned TiO2 electrodes. The green parallel lines in the top view represent ITO patterns attached to 60 external contact pads.78 (E) Left: (a, b) The first ITO layer of 100-nm thickness for source and drain, (c) 20-nm thick ZnO active layer and the first Al2O3 layer of 10-nm thickness for the ZnO layer protection, (d) the second Al2O3 layer of 20-nm thickness as the gate dielectric layer and through-holes punched in the layer, (e) the second ITO layer of 100-nm thickness for the gate electrodes, and (f) the third Al2O3 layer of 20-nm thickness to protect the whole device. Right: Structure of a ZnO-TFT electrode. The red dashed square labels a transistor with W/L = 80/5, which consist of 16 transistors with W/L = 5/5 in parallel. (F) Microscopic image of a 3 × 4 ZnO-TFT array. The red dashed frame labels an active region consisting of 16 paralleled ZnO-TFT, corresponding to that in the red dashed frame in E (right). Scale bar: 200 μm. E and F were reprinted from Zhang et al.81 Al2O3: aluminum oxide; D: drain; ITO: indium-tin-oxide; LFP: local field potential; PtNM: platinum nanomesh; S: source; SiMNA: silicon microneedle array; SNR: signal-to-noise ratio; TFT: thin-film transistor; TiO2: titanium dioxide; W/L: width-to-length ratio; ZnO: zinc oxide.

Figure 3. Neuroelectrodes are made of carbon nanomaterials. (A) Photograph of graphene dispersion and MGH membrane (top). The inset (bottom) outlines the multilayer structure of the MGH membrane made of CCG nanosheets (red).87 (B) Proximal and distal d-MGH at 8 weeks after implantation. The color bars represent the blood flow velocity. Scale bars: 5.0 mm (left), 2.0 mm (right).87 CCG: chemically converted graphene; d-MGH: CCG nanosheets densely packed MGH; MGH: multilayer graphene hydrogel.

Figure 4. Neuroelectrodes are made of conductive polymer materials. (A) Swelling study of pNIPAm hydrogel and HCuM 0.13–0.40 in water for 5 days. (B) Demonstration of adhesion of HCuM 0.13–0.40. A and B were reprinted from Hong et al.94 Copyright 2022 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. Reproduced with permission. (C) Histogram of Young’s modulus, showing the mechanical properties of PAAm/AgNCs compared to PAAm hydrogels, measured by nanoindentation method (left) and histogram of the electrical impedance values, measured at a physiologically significant frequency (10 Hz), showing the superior electrical properties of the PAAm/AgNCs hydrogel (right). Data are expressed as mean ± SD. **P ≤ 0.01, **P ≤ 0.001. Reprinted with permission from Rinoldi et al.95 Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society. AgNC: silver nanocube; HCuM: a set of polymer network hydrogels interpenetrated with poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) and poly(Cu-arylacetyl); PAAm: polyacrylamide.

Figure 5. Coating of metallic materials for neural electrodes. (A) SEM images of the side of the PDC-coated neural electrode before (A1-3) and after (A4-6) mechanical stability tests. Scale bars: 500 nm.123 (B) Schematic diagrams of stretchable electrodes based on a single-layer microcrack design and a dual microcrack-coupled design. (C) R/R0 versus tensile strain for Au electrodes based on PDMS 0.9-IPDI and PDMS substrates, respectively (-D for a double-layer microcrack, -S for a single-layer microcrack). (D) Dual microcrack-coupled PDMS 0.9-IPDI electrodes Change in tensile resistance after 12 hours of healing at 25°C. B-D were reprinted from Yang et al.126 Copyright 2023 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. Reproduced with permission. (E) Soaking test of hydrolysis in SiC and as-grown SiO2 in 1× PBS at different temperatures up to 96°C (top) and SiC thickness and electrical resistance variations after the accelerated hydrolysis test in PBS at 96°C after up to 14 days (bottom).127 Au: aurum; IPDI: isophorone diisocyanate; PBS: phosphate buffer solution; PDC: pulsed direct current; PDMS: poly(dimethylsiloxane); R/R0: resistance change; SEM: scanning electron microscope; SiC: silicon carbide; SiO2: silicon dioxide; Ti: titanium.

Figure 6. Conductive polymer material coatings for nerve electrodes. (A) SEM and TEM images of (a) PEDOT and (b) PEDOT/PDAM films. Scale bars: 200 nm (left), 10 nm (right). (B) Fluorescence images showing immunofluorescence staining of β-tubulin III (green), MAP2 (red), and nuclei (blue) after culturing neuronal progenitor cells in PEDOT/PDAM films for 21 days. (C) Cyclic voltammetry curves of chemically polymerised PEDOT and other interfaces (n = 3), impedance of electrodes at 20 kHz frequency after sonication. A-C were reprinted with permission from Huang et al.130 Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society. (D) (a) The numbers of high-quality recording spikes (SNR > 6) of LM wire, Pt wire, and PEDOT LMEs for 4 weeks, and (b) analysis of variance test revealed the significant difference among the electrodes. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01. D was reprinted from Lim et al.133 Copyright 2022 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. Reproduced with permission. Au: aurum; C-PEDOT: chemical polymerization PEDOT; E-PEDOT: electropolymerization PEDOT; Ir: iridium; IrO3: iridium trioxide; LM: liquid metal; LME: liquid metal based electrode; MAP2: microtubule-associated protein 2; PDAM: 1-pyrenyldiazomethane; PEDOT: poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene); Pt: platinum; SEM: scanning electron microscope; SNR: signal-to-noise ratio; TEM: transmission electron microscope.

Figure 7. Coating with active substance grafts. (A) SEM images of (Aa) Au polyester film electrode and (A2) Au/PPy electrode surface. Reprinted with permission from Desroches et al.138 Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (B) von Mises stress profiles of bare and LIPS-coated probes within brain tissue during insertion (B1) and under lateral micromotion of 100 μm (B2).141 Au: aurum; LIPS: lubricated immune-stealthy probe surface; PPy: polypyrrole.

Figure 8. Neuroelectrodes with composite coatings. (A) (A1) Schematic representation of stimulation paradigm showing connection of the stimulation patch and EMG electrodes placement along with camera for whisker movement recording. (A2) Two different flexible patches were used for HD-ECS. Patch 1 contained 24 disk electrodes arranged in a 6 × 4 array in a cartesian grid, and Patch 2 had 27 ring-shaped electrodes arranged in a hexagonal grid. The patch was placed above the skull with its centre aligned to bregma, covering the motor cortex of both hemispheres.142 (B) Surface morphology (2D and 3D height images) of c-PEG-0 (B1) and c-PEG-20 (B2) samples in water taken by AFM. Scale bars: 5 μm (inset: 500 nm).146 (C) SEM images of different functional coatings. (C1) MWCNTs, (C2) MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PSS, (C3) MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PGlu/PSS, (C4) MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PGlu/PSS-PLys, (C5) MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PGlu/PSS-PLys-NGF (before CV stimulation), and (C6) MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PGlu/PSS-PLys-NGF coatings (after 500 cycles of CV stimulation). Insets are corresponding images with higher magnification. (D) (D1, D3) EIS (D1) and CV (D3) of bare Au electrodes, MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PSS, MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PGlu/PSS, MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PGlu/PSS-PLys, and MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PGlu/PSS-PLys-NGF functional coatings. Comparison of EIS (D2) and CV (D4) of bare Au electrodes, PPy/PSS films, PPy/Dex films, and MWCNTs/Dex-PPy/PGlu/PSS-PLys-NGF functional coatings. Data are represented by mean ± standard deviation (n ≥ 3). Reprinted with permission from Tian et al.147 Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society. 2D: two dimensional; 3D: three dimensional; AFM: atomic force microscope; Au: aurum; c-PEG: carbon nanotube-poly(ethylene glycol); CV: cyclic voltammetry; Dex: dexamethasone; MWCNT: multiwalled carbon nanotube; NGF: nerve growth factor; PGlu: poly(glutamic acid); PLys: poly(lysine); PPy: polypyrrole; PSS: poly(styrene sulfonate); SEM: scanning electron microscope.

Figure 9. Neuroelectrode coatings for regulating cellular activity through microforms. (A) SEM images of (A1) collagen fibres coated on silicon wafer and (A2) collagen-like Au nanostructures developed from the nanoimprint process; Application of CLGNS nanostructuring process on (A3) microelectrode array surface and (A4) meander pattern, as proof of concept.192 Scale bars: 10 μm (A1, A2), 20 μm (A3, A4) (inset scale bar 1 μm). (B) Photograph of photopatterned MH (15 wt% SBMA) and AFM current image of PEDOT:PSS treated with SBMA (15 wt%). Reprinted with permission from Yang et al.58 Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society. (C) SEM micrographs of the scaffolds with alginate left gray, GF pseudo-colored red, and CNTs pseudo-colored blue. Scale bar: 1 μm. C was reprinted from Tringides et al.193 Copyright 2023 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. (D) Representative immunofluorescence images and (E) confocal microscopy images of PC-12 cells cultured on microfibres with different cladding angles for 14 days under ES conditions. Cultures were immunofluorescently stained with β-tubulin III (green), F-actin (red) and DAPI (blue). Inset: merged bright field images. D was reprinted from Wang et al.194 Copyright 2020 Wiley‐VCH GmbH. Scale bars: 150 μm. AFM: atomic force microscope; CLGNS: collagen-like gold nanostructure; DAPI: 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; ES: electrical stimulation; MH: multifunctional hydrogel; PEDOT:PSS: poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate); SBMA: 3-[dimethyl-[2-(2-methylprop-2-enoyloxy)ethyl] azaniumyl] propane-1-sulfonate; SEM: scanning electron microscope.

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